During the four to seven-year journey of priestly formation, seminarians are ordained to the Order of Deacon typically in their third year of what was once termed Theology (now called the Configuration stage).  At that point they will assist in their teaching parishes and begin the ministry of preaching.  As deacons, they will preside and preach at the Sacraments of Baptism, Holy Matrimony, funeral services, proclaim the Gospel at Sunday Mass and occasionally preach the homily.  It is important for seminarians to understand their diaconal ministry as well as that of the permanent deacons they serve with, as both transitional and permanent deacons are ordained to preach the Word of God.

In order to recognize how essential it is for the permanent deacons of the twenty-first century to be effective preachers, it is helpful for us to understand the history, theology, and ecclesiology of the diaconate. The holy order of deacon can be traced back to the early Church, where we find that the title “deacon” comes from the Greek word diakonos, which means “servant.”

In the Hebrew Scriptures those who work on behalf of God are called servants. “Priests, prophets and kings were highly visible and consecrated servants of the Lord. In particular there is a special heightened usage of ‘ebed Yahweh or servant of the Lord. This title signifies one who not only serves but is united with the Lord in a special manner to carry out the lord’s plan for his people” (Donovan 12).

Diakonia in the Early Church

In Chapters 40 – 55 of the Prophet Isaiah, there are passages called the “Servant Songs.” These servant passages provided the early Church community a way in which to understand the ministry and life of Jesus. The Christian community recognized Jesus as the one who served and suffered for others.

Jesus constantly reminded the disciples that he came to be a servant of the people, not to be served by others (Matthew 20:28, Mark 10: 45, NABRE). This concept was constantly reiterated to his followers. The passage of the Washing of the Feet in John’s Gospel (13:1-15) shows Jesus as one who cares for the needs of others. He is always calling his followers to serve one another, especially to care for those on the fringe of society, the anawim, those who have no voice, the desperate and helpless. How one can serve others is shown in the parable of the last judgment (Matthew 25:31-46): feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, caring for those who are ill, and visiting those who are imprisoned. To be a true disciple, one must be attentive to the needs of all people (Donovan 13).

Service to others is the primary characteristic of the Apostle’s ministry. Apostles are servants and affiliates of God (1 Thessalonians 3:2; 1 Corinthians 3:9; 2 Corinthians 6:1), they are ministers of the Gospel and they work to build up the Church. Through them “God himself exhorts and acts in the Holy Spirit and in Christ Jesus, who has reconciled the world with him (2 Corinthians 5:20)” (ITC 4).

We find that in the New Testament diakonos has quite a variety of meanings. Diakonos may mean the servant who waits on tables, as spoken of in John 2:5 and 9, however it could also mean the servant of the Lord (Matthew 22:13; John 12:26; Mark 9:35), or the servant of the Gospel, of Christ or of God (2 Corinthians 11:23). Diakonos may also refer to the deacons who are the servants of the Church (Colossians 1:25; 1 Corinthians 3:5) (ITC 10).

Men of service are shown throughout the Scriptures. Frequently, Acts 6:2-4 is looked at as the institution of the diaconate. Luke tells us that there were problems and internal tensions in the community. The Hellenists complained that their widows were being neglected in the distribution of the daily food allotment. “The Twelve assembled the community of the disciples and said, ‘it is not right for us to neglect the Word of God in order to wait on tables. Look around among your own number, brothers, for seven men acknowledged to be deeply spiritual and prudent, and we shall appoint them to this task. This will permit us to concentrate on prayer and the ministry of the Word.’” Thus, began the commissioning of the “Seven.” The Apostles prayed over Stephen, Philip, Prochorus, Nicanor, Timon, Parmenas, and Nicolaus. Then they imposed hands on them.

Although the Seven were originally called to wait on tables and be men of service to the widows of the community, two of the men soon become quite active in the ministry of the Word of God. Stephen embarks on an effective ministry to the Jews of the Diaspora who lived in and around Jerusalem. After Stephen is stoned to death for his witnessing to Jesus, we hear that “those who had been scattered went about preaching the Word” (Acts: 8:4).  Philip preaches about the Messiah to the people of Samaria. Philip, the servant (diakonos), becomes Philip the evangelist-preacher. It is important to recognize that Philip does not act alone, rather he is in collaboration with the Apostles, as it is through the Apostles that the gift of the Spirit is brought to others (Acts 8:9-25). Here we begin to see a development in the understanding of the servant deacon.

As the Book of Acts progresses it seems that there is a two-fold position of service: that of preaching the Word (worship) and that of caring for the physical needs of those who require assistance. The original idea of the deacon was not “primarily as a liturgical minister, but rather as one who took care of the social welfare of the needy and proclaimed the Word as a publicly recognized servant in the church” (Donovan 14).

In the Early Church deacons are always shown as exercising a ministry that is subordinate to, but in conjunction with, the episkopoi (bishops). Paul’s Letter to the Philippians (1:1) begins with: “Paul and Timothy, servants of Christ Jesus, to all the holy ones at Philippi, with their bishops and deacons in Christ Jesus.  Grace and peace be yours from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ.”

In the First Letter of Paul to Timothy, we find that deacons are first noted as holding some type of ecclesial office. Chapter 3:1-7 commends those who aspire to the role of bishop and state the necessary qualifications, bishops and deacons having similar qualifications regarding their desire to have a leadership role in the community, as Paul states:

“Likewise, deacons must be dignified, not deceitful, not addicted to drink, not greedy for sordid gain, holding fast to the mystery of the faith with a clear conscience. Moreover, they should be tested first; then, if there is nothing against them, let them serve as deacons…. Deacons may be married only once and must manage their children and their households well. Those who serve well as deacons gain good standing and much confidence in their faith in Christ Jesus”. (1 Timothy 3:8-13)

Deacons are clearly expected to be an example to others since their ministry is a visible presence to the community as well as a public trust, therefore the advice of Paul for those in church office is rather concrete. Furthermore, ministers must distinguish themselves by their love and service to others, in addition to their exemplary conduct.

1 Corinthians 12:28 notes, “God has set up in the church first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then miracle workers, healers, assistants, administrators, and those who speak in tongues”. The first three of these hierarchy of orders are the most prominent of the missionary time period.

“Sixty or seventy years later Ignatius was speaking of Antioch and the Asian churches as possessing a monarchical bishop, together with presbyters and deacons. In his time there were neither apostles nor prophets. The exact history of this transition within two generations from apostles and teachers to bishop, presbyters and deacons is shrouded in obscurity” (Chadwick 46).  Clement’s First Letter to the Corinthians notes that there are basically two orders of ministry: bishops and deacons. Even in Acts 20:17 and Titus 1: 5-7 the designation of presbyter and bishop is assigned to the same person. At some point in time an established local clergy came into being and for at least a generation the apostles and prophets coexisted with the bishops and deacons (Chadwick 46). In the text of the Didache (also known as the Teaching of the Apostles), a document written before A..D. 130, only deacons and bishops are mentioned as successors of the prophets and teachers. Surprisingly, there is no mention of priests at this time. “Choose yourselves therefore bishops and deacons worthy of the Lord, mild men, fair-minded, truthful, reliable, for they too fulfill toward you the offices of prophets and teachers” (Didache 15,1) (ITC 12).

In the Didache and in later New Testament writings the ministry of bishop and deacon are distinctly different yet complementary. In the liturgy of the Eucharist the bishop celebrates and the deacon assists him. Deacons had the responsibility of administration of the money and goods of the church and in assisting the poor.  “In the third century the congregations had swollen to such a size that deacons had to maintain proper order; in North Africa in Cyprian’s time the deacon administered the chalice. At Rome in 150, according to Justin Martyr’s evidence, the deacon used to take the consecrated elements to absent brethren who were imprisoned or sick. Later, in some but not all churches, it was customary for the deacon to read the liturgical Gospel” (Chadwick 48).

The order of deacon was not originally designed to be a first transitional step towards becoming a bishop, rather it was usually a life-long permanent ministry. From the very beginning, deacons were in close collaboration with the bishops because they were ordained specifically for service to the bishop.  “Deacons assisted with the care of newcomers, of the poor, of widows and orphans, and even in matters of justice” (Ditewig  14).  The bishop’s expectation of his deacons was for them to be his eyes and ears as well as mouth to those he could not be present to himself. The role of the deacon was to minister as Jesus; to give one’s life in service to others.

We find that as the Church continued to expand, bishops could no longer personally preside over their communities by themselves. Whereas the term bishop/presbyter was considered one office in the early church, a transition occurred eventually where one bishop rose to a position of authority and superiority as the presider over several churches, and he was given the power to ordain. The episcopate was elevated to an order that stood above the presbyterate although in some ways was also equivalent to it. “The bishop among his presbyters remained first among equals and for centuries continued to address them as fellow-presbyters” (Chadwick 50). The  presbyter became the ‘teacher’ of apostolic times, and the bishop was equated with the Apostles. It was therefore during the second century that the three-tiered system of bishops, presbyters, and deacons became commonplace.

Diakonia from the Third to Twelfth Centuries

During the third century, we find that there is a tremendous increase in the status of the diaconate. The deacons are still considered last in the three-tiered hierarchical structure, however, there is a growing challenge in the relationship between deacons and priests. Priests are considered equal to the Apostles, but deacons are compared to Christ Jesus as servant to all. Besides his liturgical role at the celebration of the Eucharist, the deacon is at this time involved in the administration of Baptism, caring for the finances of the church community, and is also called to be involved in the field of teaching (ITC 15). During the third and fourth centuries  the diaconate was considered a necessary and integral part of the hierarchy of the Church.

The Council of Neo-Caesarea “at the beginning of the fourth century, had asked that each Church, however big it was, should have no more than seven deacons, in memory of Acts of the Apostles 6:1-6. This provision heightened the prestige of the diaconal order and encouraged deacons still more to leave their original functions to other members of the clergy” (ITC 35). This was the beginning of the end of the diaconate as a distinct separate order from the priesthood. Other ministers such as sub-deacons, acolytes, lectors, exorcists, and door-keepers began to take on the tasks originally slated for thedeacon.

After the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the financial responsibility of administration was taken away from the deacons; the Council noted that this responsibility was to be handled by the priest, rather than the deacon. Monasteries now took care of aiding the poor. By the tenth century the deacon seems to be closer to the sub-deacon (a minor order) than to the priest.  After the First and Second Lateran Councils (1123 and 1139), clergy were no longer permitted to be married; therefore from that point in history, the Church would only ordain men who were vowed to celibacy (ITC 38).

The road to a vocation in the Church eventually became a progression through many ‘lesser’ ministries. The diaconate and its functions were appropriated by the priesthood. As one progressed up the hierarchical ladder, each subordinate ministry possessed the ability to do what the previous ministry could do. “The fact that the different competencies fitted together this way and that the lesser functions were taken over by higher ones, and the fragmentation of the original role of the deacon, all go to explain how the diaconate as a permanent ministry lost its reason for existing” (ITC 39). Candidates for the priesthood exercised diaconal tasks for a specific time prior to ordination to the presbyterate.

Diakonia from the Thirteenth Century through the Council of Trent (1563)

Saint Thomas Aquinas taught that the diaconate was a sacrament because it belonged to Holy Orders. Through this sacramental consecration, a character was imprinted on the soul of those who were ordained. The relationship of each order (subdeacon, deacon, and priest) to the Eucharist recognized that ordination gave specific power or authority to the individual. Priests received the power to  consecrate, while deacons received the authority to assist priests in administering the sacraments (ITC 46).

In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the diaconate continued to be a stepping stone towards priestly ordination. The sacramentality of the diaconate and all of the minor orders were debated, with the conclusion being set forth that only ordination to the priesthood constituted a true sacrament. All other orders were inferior to priesthood, including the diaconate.

After the imposition of mandatory celibacy in the twelfth century, the clergy was thought to have lost one way of relating to their congregation.  During the time of the Protestant Reformation, ”the Reformers insisted that there exists in the Church no ministerial power received through the sacrament of Holy Order. There is only a priesthood of all believers. Since the Eucharist is not a sacrifice (Calvary cannot, and need not, be repeated), there is no need for a cultic priesthood in the Church” (McBrien 805). However, the Council of Trent did not agree with the Reformers and insisted that the priesthood was one of the seven Sacraments of the Church, that the Mass is indeed an actual Sacrifice, “and that there is a true hierarchy in the Church consisting of bishops, priests, and deacons and that these ministers do not depend on the call of the community for their authority and powers” (McBrien 805).

From the time of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) until the middle of the twentieth century the role of the deacon remained unchanged.

Vatican II – The Restoration of the Permanent Diaconate

The idea of renewing the diaconate started to simmer during the horror and tumult of World War I. However, it was after the Jewish genocide, and the torture, imprisonment, and mass deportations of World War II, that Church leaders discerned that the Church had an indelible character as “servant”, as many priests were also incarcerated and murdered in Nazi concentration camps.

Priests who managed to live through the Shoah began to share their experiences of the terror, fear, and complete despair at Auschwitz, Bergen-Belsen, and Dachau. They recognized a need for a renewal within the Church: a distinct way in which the Church, through service, could witness Christ to the modem world.

Survivors of the Dachau concentration camp wrote about their experiences. Many people were inspired by their writings, especially a man named Hannes Kramer of Freiburg, Germany who was deeply moved by the testimony and insights from those who lived through the hell of the death camps. In 1951 he formed a “diaconate circle” of people who began to assist men and women with various social services. This was also the thrust for envisioning the possibilities of the reinstitution of the permanent diaconate as part of the Church. Various groups began researching biblical and theological insights by which the Church could go back to its roots of service, in the same manner as Christ was servant to all (Ditewig 20).

Through the care and kindness of priests and others during the war, the Church had responded with loving service to those oppressed by the “darkness of the world.” Jesus had told his disciples that the Son of Man did not come to be served but to serve (Matthew 20:28 NABRE).  “A sacramental diaconate lived as a permanent state of ordained ministry could help restore that sense of service throughout the Church.  Deacons would have a mission from their bishop to be leaders in service to the Church and the community; they would also have a responsibility to enflame and inspire the rest of the members of the Church to serve others as well” (Ditewig 20).

As the world continued to move into the twentieth century, the Church re­thought its position concerning modernism. For hundreds of years the leaders of the Catholic Church had tried to shield their people from the rest of the world. Pope Saint John XXIII called for aggiornamento – a throwing open of the windows, and for a spirit of openness in dealing with people and cultures outside the Church.

On the eve of Vatican II, there were a variety of opinions on whether or not the permanent diaconate should be reinstituted as a part of the hierarchical structure of Holy Orders. There were those who believed that the permanent diaconate could serve as an effective bridge between the presbyterate and the laity.

During the first stage of Vatican Council II in 1962, there did not seem to be much interest in the diaconate as a specific topic of discussion. However, “during the first intercession (1962-1963), a certain number of the Council Fathers began to evoke the possibility of the restoration of the permanent diaconate, some pointing out its advantages in the missionary or ecumenical field, others recommending caution” (ITC 66). Many practical questions were asked, but of special concern was the question: if married men were allowed into the clergy, what would be the subsequent consequences for the Church and its long-standing tradition of celibacy for its ministers within the Latin Rite? (ITC 66).

There were a number of Council Fathers who viewed the restoration of the permanent diaconate as a theological matter. “As a rank within the sacred hierarchy of the Church, the diaconate had been part of the constitution of the Church from its beginnings. If the council revived the permanent diaconate, it would not be altering the constitutive elements of the Church, but would only be reintroducing something that had been left aside” (ITC 67).

Because a deacon is not a layman, but rather an ordained member of the hierarchy, there is an indelible mark imprinted upon him at the time of his ordination. Permanent deacons were to work within secular society and provide the faithful with easier access to the hierarchy. This diaconate was to be a ministry designed to “penetrate secular society” and renew the Church in a spirit of humbleness, humility, and service (ITC 68).

On November 21, 1964 the document Lumen Gentium (Dogmatic Constitution on the Church) was promulgated. LG 28 states:

“Christ, whom the Father has sanctified and sent into the world, has through His apostles, made their successors, the bishops, partakers of His consecration and His mission. They have legitimately handed on to different individuals in the Church various degrees of participation in this ministry. Thus, the divinely established ecclesiastical ministry is exercised on different levels by those who from antiquity have been called bishops, priests, and deacons.”

 The permanent diaconate had finally been recognized as a rightful ministry within the hierarchy of the Church. LG 28 continues with the sacerdotal powers of the priest and his relationship to the bishop and the People of God. However, in LG 29 the position of the deacon and his ministerial responsibilities are outlined:

“At a lower level of the hierarchy are deacons, upon whom hands are imposed ‘not unto the priesthood, but unto a ministry of service’. For strengthened by sacramental grace, in communion with the bishop and his group of priests they serve in the diaconate of the liturgy, of the word, and of charity to the people of God. It is the duty of the deacon, according as it shall have been assigned to him by competent authority, to administer baptism solemnly, to be custodian and dispenser of the Eucharist, to assist at and bless marriages in the name of the Church, to bring Viaticum to the dying, to read the Sacred Scripture to the faithful, to instruct and exhort the people, to preside over the worship and prayer of the faithful, to administer sacramentals, to officiate at funeral and burial services. Dedicated to duties of charity and of administration, let deacons be mindful of the admonition of Blessed Polycarp: ‘Be merciful, diligent, walking according to the truth of the Lord, who became the servant of all” (Flannery 387).

“Since these duties, so very necessary to the life of the Church, can be fulfilled only with difficulty in many regions in accordance with the discipline of the Latin Church as it exists today, the diaconate can in the future be restored as a proper and permanent rank of the hierarchy. It pertains to the competent territorial bodies of bishops, of one kind or another, with the approval of the Supreme Pontiff, to decide whether and where it is opportune for such deacons to be established for the care of souls. With the consent of the Roman  Pontiff, this diaconate can, in the future, be conferred upon men of more mature age, even upon those living in the married state. It may also be conferred upon suitable young men, for whom the law of celibacy must remain intact”. (Flannery 387, emphasis added)

Here we see that the Church had now formally opened the doors for the diaconate to be not only a transitional state prior to entering the presbyterate, but a distinct separate order within the hierarchy. On June 18, 1967, Pope Paul VI promulgated the document Sacrum Diaconatus Ordinem (The Sacred Order of the Diaconate). This was the actual implementation of the recommendations and decisions of the Council Fathers to restore the permanent diaconate. By 1970 there were approximately one hundred deacons serving the Latin Church. Two of them were in the United States.  However, as of 2004 there were over 30,000 Roman Catholic Latin Rite deacons with about 14,000 of them serving in the United States (Ditewig 5).  That number has currently risen to approximately 20,600 in the United States as of 2022. (CARA). 

This permanent deaconate ministry has continued to grow exponentially. Over my thirty years of ordained ministry, I have served in three different dioceses: 16 years in Rockville Centre (New York), 4 years in Portland (Maine), and for the last 10 years I have been incardinated in the Archdiocese of Milwaukee (Wisconsin) where as of 2022 there are now approximately 169 permanent deacons.  Although diaconal functions can vary from parish to parish, there are very specific responsibilities that are proper to ordained diaconate ministry. The three munera (tasks) are:

• The diaconia of the Word of God – (munus docendi). The deacon is a teacher through his preaching during the celebration of the Mass and other liturgies, in addition to witnessing to the Word of God in his secular life.

• The diaconia of the Liturgy – (munus sanctificandi). The deacon sanctifies when he distributes the Eucharist, administers the sacrament of Baptism, witnesses marriages, and officiates at funeral and burial rites. He presides over liturgies of the Word and other prayer services.

• The diaconia of Justice and Charity – (munus regendi). Just as the deacons in the early Church assisted the poor and needy, so too do the deacons of the twenty-first century. Deacons serve the abused, drug addicts, the dying, the homeless, those who are HIV positive, men and women who are incarcerated, people working through divorce. Deacons are the voice for the voiceless. They are called not only to bring concerns to the forefront, “but to help those in need to find their own voice and to assume power over their lives”. (Bishops Committee on the Permanent Diaconate 18)

The Deacon as Preacher

A consistent question still asked in many parishes is, “What exactly is the role of the deacon in preaching?” Since the deacon is an ordained minister of the Church, he has a very specific capacity as a preacher and is called to share in the bishop’s own preaching responsibility. “It was envisioned prior to the second Vatican Council that one of the deacon’s primary functions would be preaching in the midst of the assembly. The deacon should bring to his homilies a prophetic sense of the service to which all are called. Through his own experience with those most in need, the deacon has an obligation to proclaim the community’s responsibility to those in need in light of the Gospel” (Ditewig 82).

There are many important dimensions of diaconate formation, which include human formation, the capacity to relate to others and to always be ready to serve, as well as spiritual and doctrinal formation, all of which are imperative for the deacon to be able to exercise his ministry. The National Directory for the Formation, Ministry, and Life of Permanent Deacons in the United States of America (Second Edition) also makes clear that:

The deacon participates as an evangelizer and teacher in the Church’s mission of heralding the Word.  In the Liturgy of the Word, especially in the Eucharist or in other liturgies, the deacon proclaims the Gospel.  He may preach by virtue of his ordination and in accord with the requirements of canon law.  The deacon also strives to transmit the Word in his professional life either explicitly or merely by his active presence in places where public opinion is formed and ethical norms are applied. (33)

At his ordination, the deacon kneels before the bishop and hears the following words: “Receive the Gospel of Christ whose herald you now are – Believe what you read, teach what you believe, and practice what you teach. The deacon must always (emphasis added) remain a student of God’s Word, for only when the Word is deeply rooted in his own life can he bring that Word to others” (85).

Deacons are ordained “to proclaim the Gospel and preach the Word of God.  They should be trained carefully to prepare their homilies in prayer, in study of the sacred texts, in perfect harmony with the Magisterium, and in keeping with the [age, culture, and abilities] of those to whom they preach. … Deacons collaborate with the bishop and the priests in the exercise of a ministry which is not of their wisdom but of the Word of God, calling all to conversion and holiness” (86).  

There is a very distinct role for the deacon in a Eucharistic celebration. The General Instruction of the Roman Missal (GIRM) is an excellent guide for all ministers and their responsibilities and duties during sacramental celebrations. Whether lector, acolyte, deacon, priest, or the community of the people of God, all find their office and function addressed in the GIRM, where paragraphs 91-111 describe the duties and ministries in the Mass.  Paragraphs 65-66 are specifically geared towards the homily as a necessary part of the liturgy and notes who is tasked with preaching the homily: “The homily should ordinarily be given by the Priest Celebrant himself or be entrusted by him to a concelebrating Priest, or from time to time and, if appropriate, to the Deacon” (66).

If a deacon is present at Mass, he is always the one to proclaim the Gospel passage; even if the pope, a cardinal, or a bishop is present, it is still the function of the deacon to proclaim the Sacred Scripture. During the Sunday celebration of the Eucharist, the parish priest, the deacon, or a visiting priest may be the homilist. At any celebration at which a deacon presides (weddings, Baptisms, wake or funeral services), the deacon is to preach the Word of God in accordance with the will of the bishop.

The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (Sacrosanctum Concilium) notes that:

“When the sacred scriptures are read in Church, God himself is speaking to his people, and Christ, present in his word, is proclaiming his Gospel. Hence the readings from God’s word are among the most important elements in the liturgy, and all who are present should listen to them with reverence. The word of God in the scripture readings is indeed addressed to all men of all times and can be understood by them; yet its power to influence men is increased if it be given a living explanation by means of a homily which should be ranked as an integral part of the liturgical action”. (Flannery 164)

Proclaiming and preaching God’s Word is therefore the preeminent task for bishops, priests and deacons and so diaconal preaching should complement that of the priests. Of course, seminary training in homiletics is not enough; there must be continual ongoing formation/education in preaching so that deacons (and priests) may be better prepared to bring the living word to the People of God.

The permanent deacon brings his lived personal experiences of family life, the business world, the classroom, and/or the construction site to the pulpit.  With his experience in the world, coupled with his human formation and years of theological study, the permanent deacon brings a unique and intimate voice to the hearts and minds of the People of God.

[This article has been peer reviewed.]

Works Cited

Bishops’ Committee on the Permanent Diaconate – National Conference of Catholic Bishops. “Permanent Deacons in the United States (Guidelines on Their Formation and Ministry)”. United States Catholic Conference: Washington DC, 1985. 

Chadwick, Henry. The Early Church. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1967. 

Diakonia of Christ to the Diakonia of the Apostles.   Chicago/Mundelein: Hillenbrand Books,      2004.

Ditewig, William T. 101 Questions and Answers on Deacons. New York: Paulist Press, 2004. 

Donovan, William T. The Sacrament of Service: Understanding Diaconal Spirituality. Green       Bay: Alt Publishing Company, 2000. 

Flannery, Austin, ed. Vatican Council II: The Conciliar and Post Conciliar Documents.     Northport: Costello Publishing Company, 1975. 

Hoffman, Elizabeth, ed. The Liturgy Documents. Chicago: Liturgy Training Publications, 1991. 

International Theological Commission: Historico-Theological Research Document.  From the

McBrien, Richard P. Catholicism. San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1970.

The Roman Missal.  New Jersey: Catholic Book Publishing Corporation, 2011.

USCCB.  The National Directory for the Formation, Ministry, and Life of Permanent Deacons in the United States of America.  United States Conference of Catholic Bishops.  Washington, DC, 2021.